The backward effects of total heart failure can cause the following:
- Jugular vein distension: This occurs due to increased pressure in the right atrium, which backs up into the venous system.
- Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea: Patients may experience sudden shortness of breath while lying down, caused by the accumulation of fluid in the lungs.
- Pulmonary edema: The left ventricle's inability to effectively pump blood can lead to fluid buildup in the lungs.
- Pulmonary crackles: These are abnormal lung sounds that can indicate fluid in the alveoli, often associated with pulmonary edema.
Hypertension is typically not a backward effect of total heart failure; instead, heart failure is usually associated with lower blood pressure.
So, the correct options are:
- Jugular vein distension
- Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
- Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary crackles