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In the 1850s, many doctors believed that illness was spread by miasma, or “bad air.”

Nobody knew then that we share the world with millions of microscopic germs—and
nobody understood the role that these germs could play in spreading disease. So
hospitals, in those days, were filthy. Doctors didn’t bother to clean their surgical aprons
or instruments between seeing patients. Sometimes, surgeons didn’t even wash their
hands before operating.
Joseph Lister, a young surgeon, noticed how many patients died not from the surgery
itself, but from infections that arose at the surgical wound. He suspected that some sort
of infectious agent was responsible for the number of surgical deaths. After reading
Louis Pasteur’s pioneering work on microbes, Lister thought he had found his culprit.
He tried an experiment. Before operating, he cleaned his surgical instruments with
carbolic acid. This sterilized the tools. Within a few years, he was able to publish
results showing that death rates in his hospital had dropped dramatically.
Surprisingly, the medical community resisted Lister’s ideas. Although his younger
students greeted the new practice with enthusiasm, the “old guard” had staked their
reputations on the belief in miasmas. He had to fight for sterilization to be taken
seriously. But in the end, the survival of his patients was the greatest argument in his
favor. Today, hospitals offer a far cleaner and safer setting for people to be treated.

What are 4 causes and 4 effects in the text

11 answers

Causes:

  1. Belief in Miasma Theory: Many doctors in the 1850s believed that illnesses were spread by “bad air,” which contributed to the unhygienic practices in hospitals.
  2. Lack of Understanding of Germs: There was no knowledge about microscopic germs and their role in disease transmission, leading to careless medical practices.
  3. Infections from Surgical Wounds: Joseph Lister observed that many patients died from infections rather than the surgery itself, prompting his investigation.
  4. Reading Pasteur’s Work: Lister's exposure to Louis Pasteur's research on microbes led him to suspect that infectious agents were responsible for surgical deaths.

Effects:

  1. Introduction of Sterilization Practices: Lister's use of carbolic acid to clean surgical instruments led to the development of sterilization practices in surgery.
  2. Dramatic Drop in Death Rates: With the implementation of sterilization, Lister was able to show a significant decrease in death rates in his hospital.
  3. Resistance from the Medical Community: Despite his successes, Lister faced opposition from established medical professionals who were reluctant to abandon the miasma theory.
  4. Improved Safety in Hospitals: Ultimately, Lister's practices contributed to creating cleaner and safer hospital environments for patients, fundamentally transforming surgical procedures.
can you add one more cause and one more effect of that cause

Additional Cause:

  1. Emerging Scientific Evidence: The growing body of scientific evidence and research in microbiology during the late 19th century, including Pasteur's experiments and findings, provided a more substantial foundation for understanding disease transmission beyond the miasma theory.

Additional Effect:

  1. Shift in Medical Practices and Education: The acceptance of germ theory over time led to significant changes in medical practices, including the incorporation of hygiene and sterilization protocols in medical training, shaping future generations of healthcare professionals to prioritize patient safety and infection control.
can you provide a really short sentence long definition of the following words please?

Context clues
Idiom
Literal

Context clues: Hints or information within a text that help clarify the meaning of unfamiliar words.

Idiom: A phrase or expression whose meaning isn't deducible from the individual words.

Literal: Relating to the most basic or straightforward meaning of a word or phrase, without metaphor or exaggeration.

can you reword the Idiom?

Idiom: A group of words that conveys a meaning different from the individual meanings of the words themselves.

The words and phrases in bold might be unfamiliar to you. List any words in the passage that you link and give clues to their meaning.

While the invention of the steamboat is often attributed to American inventor
Robert Fulton, credit should really go to John Fitch. Fitch built four steamboats in
the late eighteenth century. These boats travelled successfully on lakes and rivers,
and were proof that steam could be used to propel boats. Fitch’s boats included more
traditional elements as well, such as paddle wheels and screw propellers. By
blending tried and true methods of propulsion with new technology, Fitch created
functioning steam boats. He forfeited his place in American memory due not to any
mechanical failings, but to financial ones. His production and operating costs were
too high to make steam travel economically feasible. As a result, many people have
forgotten his role in the invention of the steamboat. It wasn’t until after his death that
Robert Fulton created a commercially successful steamboat and became known as
“the father of steam navigation.”

Here are some words and phrases from the passage that may be unfamiliar, along with clues to their meanings:

  1. Attributed - Often associated or credited to someone; in this context, it suggests that Robert Fulton is generally recognized or given credit for the invention.

  2. Forfeited - To lose the right to something; here, it means that Fitch lost his recognition or place in history for a particular reason.

  3. Mechanical failings - Problems or issues related to the design or operation of machines; this implies that Fitch's boats worked properly, but his financial issues were the problem.

  4. Financial ones - Related to money matters; it refers to the difficulties Fitch faced concerning the costs of producing and operating his steamboats.

  5. Economically feasible - Practical or possible from a financial standpoint; it indicates that the costs of steam travel were too high to be viable for widespread use.

  6. Commercially successful - Achieving financial success in business; in this context, it means that Fulton created a steamboat that generated profit and gained acceptance in the market.

  7. Steam navigation - The act of traveling or transporting goods using steamboats powered by steam engines; it refers to a form of transportation that became significant due to the invention of the steamboat.

These words and phrases help provide a deeper understanding of the passage's context regarding the history and significance of the steamboat's invention.

can you write one for "Propulsion" please?

Propulsion - The act or process of driving or moving forward, typically referring to the mechanism or force that moves a vehicle or object through water, air, or space.