Endangered Languages Akira Y. Yamamoto 1 A Chamicuro grandmother, Natalia Sangama, spoke these words in 1999: I dream in Chamicuro, but I cannot tell my dreams to anyone, because there is no one else who speaks Chamicuro. It’s lonely being the last one. 2 The Chamicuro (or Chamekolo) is a language in Lagunas, Peru. It has only eight speakers and is critically endangered. . . . Globally, Languages Are Disappearing 3 UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing . . . documents 2,279 languages in the world faced with different degrees of endangerment: 538 are critically endangered, the youngest speakers are elderly, and interaction in the given language is infrequent or rare. Thus, we must assume that these 538 languages will disappear in a few years when these speakers are gone. 4 Languages are disappearing because people stop using their heritage language and, instead, start using another, often the language of political, economic, military, and/or religious dominance. Major reasons for languages disappearing, besides human and natural disasters, are: The language of formal education is not a child’s heritage language, so that children do not fully learn it. Mass media, entertainment, and other cultural products are all in dominant languages. Dominant language receives a higher status, while the heritage language obtains a lower status. Urbanization, migration, and employment mobility lead to disintegration of language communities. Labor markets require knowledge of dominant languages to the detriment of heritage languages. Multilingualism is not valued, but monolingualism in the dominant language is considered sufficient and desirable. Dominant language is desirable for states (one nation—one language) and for individuals, fostering belief that children must choose between learning their heritage language or learning the dominant language…. Of Indigenous Languages in the United States 5 At the time of European contact, there were an estimated 300 indigenous languages in North America that belonged to more than 50 language families. The first major classification of Native American languages, by John Wesley Powell (1891), identified 58 language families. According to the Atlas, prior to 1950 there were 192 languages in the United States, and 53 have become extinct since then, leaving 139 languages with one or more speakers. Eleven languages are classified as “unsafe” in that most children speak the language, but the use of the language may be restricted to certain domains such as in the home. Twenty-five languages are “definitely endangered,” meaning that children no longer learn the language as their mother tongue. Thirty-two are “severely endangered,” or spoken primarily by older generations. Seventy-one languages are classified as “critically endangered,” because the youngest speakers are the elderly. 6 In the United States, all indigenous languages are endangered. In Alaska, where there were 21 languages with one or more speakers, the Eyak language lost its last speaker in 2008. The most linguistically diverse state is California. Of Powell’s 58 language families, 22 were in California. Californian languages have suffered most extensively, and yet they continue to represent very diverse language families. Almost half of the Native Californian Indian languages have disappeared since the 1950s, leaving 30 with one or more speakers. U.S. Preservation Efforts 7 Language professionals, community leaders, and individual members of Native communities continue to raise awareness of the rapid decline of indigenous languages among their peoples, policymakers, and the general public. . . . Individuals and language communities have run programs to revitalize their heritage languages in private homes, communities, and schools since the 1970s. As there are diverse communities, there are diverse language programs. Some “revive” languages not spoken for decades, based on documented materials; some rely on one-on-one language transmission, especially when the remaining speakers are elderly; some reintroduce the language to schoolchildren and to their parents; some are heritage language medium programs; and many teach the language as an academic subject. Programs target learners of all ages. . . . Where Are We and Where Are We Going? 8 In recent years, we have seen a gradual change in attitudes towards bilingualism: an appreciation for it, if not encouragement of bilingual education. The most noticeable changes are attitudes within Native American communities. Shame in using their heritage languages has shifted to pride in their languages. Younger people are actively interested in language revitalization, and more language programs are emerging. 9 At the institutional level, there are increasingly active efforts to promote Native language education. Organizations such as the Indigenous Language Institute assist language communities and individuals in their efforts in language documentation and revitalization through grants and technical support from government, nongovernmental, and international organizations. 10 Each and every language is precious. With language, individuals form a group. With language, humans create a universe in which the relationship with their environment is established, nurtured, and maintained. When we lose a language, we lose a worldview, a unique identity, and a storehouse of knowledge. Text Source: Yamamoto, Akira Y. "Endangered Languages." IIP Digital. U.S. Embassy, U.S. Department of State. Jun. 2009. Web. 15 July 2013. In the public domain. Multiple Choice Question Which point on the bullet list BEST supports the inference that electronic social media sites are contributing to the decline of endangered languages? A. The language of formal education is not a child’s heritage language, so that children do not fully learn it. B. Mass media, entertainment, and other cultural products are all in dominant languages. C. Dominant language receives a higher status, while the heritage language obtains a lower status. D. Labor markets require knowledge of dominant languages to the detriment of heritage languages.

Answer 1

The point on the bullet list that BEST supports the inference that electronic social media sites are contributing to the decline of endangered languages is:

B. Mass media, entertainment, and other cultural products are all in dominant languages.

This choice directly relates to the influence of media and social platforms, which predominantly feature dominant languages, thereby reducing the use and visibility of endangered languages in these spaces.