Question

Selection 1: Ice Climbing
by Bob and Paula Morrow
1 Imagine crawling up a frozen waterfall. It’s cold. It’s difficult. It’s dangerous. Patti Poulis, of Ouray, Colorado, climbs frozen waterfalls for fun. “It’s a beautiful sport,” she says, “and it’s a challenge.” The climber has to stay focused, because ice changes all the time. It might be sticky (good) or brittle (not good). If it’s brittle, the climber has to move sideways, looking for a better spot. “Sometimes, I feel like a bug on a wall,” Poulis adds.
How Ice Climbing Began
2 For centuries, mountain climbers who encountered ice used axes to hack out steps, one by one. Two inventions changed that. Crampons (spikes that attach to boots) were invented in 1908. In 1966 came the curved ice pick. Now climbers could scale vertical ice, and a new sport was born. Today, ice climbing is popular around the world. The International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation organizes World Cup and International Championship competitions. Waterfall-climbing events are judged on speed and difficulty.

Two photographs. One photograph shows an ice climber in a helmet. He is climbing up a sheer, straight up and down wall of ice using two ice picks, one in either hand. The climber has embedded the tip of each pick in the ice, allowing him to cling to the ice without falling. The second photograph overlaps the first. It shows an ice pick close up. The ice pick handle is straight. The head has two sides, one curved and serrated, the other straight, shorter, and blunter looking. A knotted rope is threaded through holes in the head.
3 Ouray, Colorado, has the world’s premier ice park. Faucets installed along the cliffs create waterfalls that freeze into 200 routes, from beginner to advanced.
How to Get Started
4 Because it’s a dangerous sport, ice climbing requires preparation and training. In some years, Ouray Ice Park has offered a free “Kids Climbing College” during the three-day Ouray Ice Festival in January. Beginners can also learn at indoor training centers. Here, new climbers can practice on artificial ice (foam walls) and learn the proper use of ropes, axes, and other tools.
Low Impact, High Gain
5 Waterfall ice climbing leaves no trace on the Earth. In spring, the dimples left in the ice from climbing tools simply disappear in a torrent of water tumbling down. Sure, ice climbing is a challenge, but as Patti Poulis says, “The places it takes you are gorgeous.”
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Bob and Paula Morrow, “Ice Climbing”, Muse; 2021

Selection 2: The Environmental Impact of Rock Climbing
1 Rock climbing is a popular sport around the world. It requires minimal equipment and gives climbers the opportunity to challenge themselves in unique surroundings. However, the benefits of this extreme sport do not outweigh its potential to cause extreme harm to the natural world.
2 One threat comes from the chalk many climbers use to maintain a good grip while climbing. The chalk is made from magnesite that is mined from deep in the ground. Studies have shown that areas around these mines have high levels of magnesium in the soil. As a result, fewer microorganisms survive there. A 2020 study showed that the chalk caused harm to four species of ferns and mosses that live on rocks (Hepenstrick).
3 Beyond the use of chalk, rock climbers pose other threats to local plant life. Sometimes, climbers remove lichens to make their climb safer. Some of these cliffside plants may only exist in small areas of the country. Removing or damaging them could cause them to go extinct. Even careful climbers may cause destruction. One study at the University of Granada in Spain showed that frequently climbed areas had less plant life than other rock faces (Lorite).
4 Rock climbing can also disrupt animal habitats. Many bird species, including the peregrine falcon, nest on cliffs. Climbers who come too close to the nests may cause the mother birds to abandon their eggs. This is especially harmful for species that are threatened or endangered.
5 The research into the environmental effects of rock climbing is still in its early stages. However, early studies paint a clear picture. Rock climbing’s impact on local ecosystems is something all climbers should be aware of.
References
Hepenstrick, Daniel, et al. “The distribution of climbing chalk on climbed boulders and its impact on rock-dwelling fern and moss species.” Ecology and Evolution, 01 Oct. 2020.
Lorite, Juan, et al. “Rock climbing alters plant species composition, cover, and richness in Mediterranean limestone cliffs.” PLOS One, 2 Aug. 2017.


What is the main purpose of the in-text citations in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Selection 2?
A. to show why background information is important
B. to convince the reader that the author is correct
C. to explain the credibility of each source
D. to identify the source of specific details

Answer 1

D. to identify the source of specific details

The citations point readers to the studies that support the claims about chalk harming plants and climbing reducing plant life, showing where those specific facts come from.