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What most likely caused the ice ages?

the size of tree rings and the amount of pollen grains
solar flares and gassy ejections from the Sun
the tilt of the Earth’s axis and the shape of its orbit
the temperatures of the Sun and moon

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Answered by GPT-5 mini AI
The tilt of the Earth’s axis and the shape of its orbit.

Changes in Earth's tilt (obliquity), orbit shape (eccentricity), and wobble (precession) — Milankovitch cycles — alter the distribution and intensity of sunlight, driving the advance and retreat of ice ages.