Question

how is a federal system of govenment different from a unitary or confederate one

Answer 1

Short answer
- Federal: sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central (national) government and constituent states/regions; both levels have independent powers.
- Unitary: sovereignty is concentrated in a single central government, which may delegate powers to subnational units but can take them back.
- Confederate: a loose union of sovereign states that retain primary authority and delegate only limited powers to a weak central body.

Key differences

1. Source of sovereignty
- Federal: shared — the constitution allocates certain powers to both national and state governments.
- Unitary: central government is sovereign; subnational units exist by central delegation.
- Confederate: constituent states remain sovereign; the central authority has only powers they expressly grant.

2. Legal status and constitution
- Federal: the division of powers is entrenched in a constitution; federal law usually has supremacy over state law in areas allocated to the national government.
- Unitary: laws and organization of local government are set by the central government and can be changed by it.
- Confederate: central decisions often require consensus and may be non-binding; treaties among states typically govern the union.

3. Power and stability
- Federal: permanent allocation of powers makes the system relatively stable and less subject to unilateral change by the center.
- Unitary: more flexible and easier to reform or centralize because the center controls subunits.
- Confederate: less stable — member states can often withdraw or ignore central policies; central institutions are weak.

4. Fiscal and policy control
- Federal: states typically have own taxation/policy powers; shared or separate fiscal responsibilities.
- Unitary: central government controls most taxation and policy; local governments depend on central funding.
- Confederate: member states keep most fiscal powers; central body has little independent revenue.

5. Foreign policy and defense
- Federal: national government handles foreign affairs and defense (though federations vary).
- Unitary: central government handles these exclusively.
- Confederate: member states often retain significant foreign policy freedom; central authority may have limited roles.

Examples
- Federal: United States, Germany, Canada, Australia, India.
- Unitary: France, Japan, China, (United Kingdom is formally unitary but has devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland).
- Confederate (rare today): historical — the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation, the Confederate States of America; the modern EU has some confederal-like features but is sui generis.

Pros and cons (brief)
- Federal: balances local autonomy and national unity; good for diverse/large countries; can be complex and produce policy variation between states.
- Unitary: simpler, more uniform policy implementation; risk of over-centralization and ignoring local differences.
- Confederate: maximizes state sovereignty and local control; weak central coordination can hamper collective action.

One-line takeaway
A federal system splits sovereignty between central and regional governments by constitutional design; a unitary system concentrates sovereignty in the center; a confederate system leaves sovereignty with independent states and creates only a weak central authority.