Question

how is a federal system of government different from a unitary confederate one

Answer 1

Short answer:
- A federal system divides constitutional sovereignty between a central government and subnational governments (states, provinces) so both levels have direct authority over people.
- A unitary system concentrates sovereignty in a single central government, which may delegate powers to local governments but can revoke them.
- A confederate (confederal) system is a loose union of sovereign states that retain primary power and give the central authority only limited, delegated powers.

Key differences

1. Source of authority and sovereignty
- Federal: Sovereignty is constitutionally split between national and subnational governments. Both are direct authorities over citizens.
- Unitary: Sovereignty rests with the central government. Local governments exist by central grant and can be reorganized or abolished by it.
- Confederal: Sovereignty rests with the member states. The central body exists by treaty/compact and has only the powers states explicitly grant.

2. Law and supremacy
- Federal: National constitution often establishes supremacy; federal laws apply across the country within their constitutional scope. States also have independent lawmaking power.
- Unitary: Central laws are supreme; local laws must conform to central law.
- Confederal: Central decisions usually require unanimous or supermajority approval; central decisions may not be binding on all members unless ratified by them.

3. Flexibility and change
- Federal: Constitutional change typically requires agreement of both levels (amendment processes), making changes relatively difficult.
- Unitary: Easier for the central government to change organization and powers of subunits by ordinary legislation.
- Confederal: Flexible in forming agreements, but hard to enforce collective action; members can usually withdraw more easily.

4. Central authority strength (foreign policy, defense, currency)
- Federal: Central government typically controls defense, foreign policy, and often currency.
- Unitary: Central government controls these areas and can act unilaterally.
- Confederal: Central authority usually weak in these areas; states often retain control and may act independently.

5. Fiscal arrangements
- Federal: Revenue powers are divided; central often collects major taxes and shares or transfers funds to subnational units.
- Unitary: Central government controls major revenue streams and redistributes as it sees fit.
- Confederal: Member states usually retain tax authority; the central body has limited finances and depends on member contributions.

6. Stability and cohesion
- Federal: Generally stable for large, diverse countries because it accommodates regional autonomy within a single constitutional framework.
- Unitary: Can be more uniform and easier to govern centrally but may struggle with regional diversity.
- Confederal: Weaker cohesion; prone to paralysis or dissolution if members disagree (historical examples include the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the Confederate States of America).

Examples
- Federal: United States (since 1789), Germany, Australia, India, Brazil, Canada.
- Unitary: France, Japan, China, Sweden, Norway (some have strong devolution but remain unitary).
- Confederal (historical/partial): Articles of Confederation (U.S.), Confederate States of America, the early Swiss Confederacy; the European Union has some confederal traits but is sui generis.

Short summary: In a federal system power is constitutionally divided and both levels are sovereign in their domains; in a unitary system the central government holds ultimate authority; in a confederate system sovereign states loosely cooperate and keep primary authority. Many real-world systems are mixed or fall somewhere between these ideal types.