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Definition
Mayan Empire
Aztec Empire
Inca Empire
Renaissance
Rise of Florence
Humanism
Gutenberg’s printing press
Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther
John Calvin
Catholic Reformation
Henry VIII
Counter Reformation
Council of Trent
Jesuits
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- Mayan Empire: A Mesoamerican civilization (peak Classic period c. 250–900 CE) in present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras, noted for its hieroglyphic writing, advanced calendar and astronomy, stepped pyramids, and city-states (e.g., Tikal, Palenque).
- Aztec Empire: A central Mexican empire (roughly 1428–1521) centered on Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City), organized as a tributary military state, known for complex religion with human sacrifice; conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.
- Inca Empire: The largest pre-Columbian South American state (c. 1438–1533), based in the Andean highlands (capital at Cuzco), noted for sophisticated road systems, terrace agriculture, state administration, and stone masonry; fell to Francisco Pizarro.
- Renaissance: A cultural and intellectual revival originating in 14th-century Italy and spreading across Europe (14th–17th centuries), emphasizing a return to classical learning, artistic innovation, and new outlooks on human experience and the natural world.
- Rise of Florence: Florence became a leading center of the early Renaissance (14th–15th centuries) because of its wealth from banking and trade, powerful patron families (notably the Medici), and concentrations of artists, writers, and humanist scholars.
- Humanism: An intellectual movement of the Renaissance that emphasized study of classical Greek and Roman texts, the value and dignity of the individual, critical thinking, secular subjects (grammar, rhetoric, history, moral philosophy), and education for civic life.
- Gutenberg’s printing press: Johannes Gutenberg’s mid-15th-century invention of movable metal type printing (c. 1450s) in Europe, which dramatically lowered the cost of books and spread ideas, literacy, and printed Bible editions.
- Protestant Reformation: A 16th-century religious movement that challenged doctrines and abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, producing new Protestant denominations and major religious, political, and social change across Europe.
- Martin Luther: German Augustinian monk and theologian who launched the Protestant Reformation by posting his 95 Theses in 1517; he argued salvation by faith alone, rejected certain Catholic practices, and translated the Bible into German.
- John Calvin: French theologian and pastor (1509–1564) who systematized Protestant theology (Calvinism), emphasizing God’s sovereignty and predestination; he led a theocratic reform in Geneva that influenced Reformed churches across Europe.
- Catholic Reformation: The internal renewal movement within the Roman Catholic Church in response to Protestant criticism (late 15th–16th centuries), involving spiritual renewal, clerical reform, and doctrinal clarification.
- Henry VIII: King of England (1509–1547) who broke with the Roman Catholic Church when the pope refused to annul his marriage; through the Act of Supremacy (1534) he established the Church of England with the monarch as head.
- Counter-Reformation: The organized Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation (mid-16th–17th centuries), combining internal reform with efforts to oppose Protestant expansion and to reclaim adherents (overlaps with the Catholic Reformation but emphasizes reaction and defense).
- Council of Trent: An ecumenical council of the Catholic Church (1545–1563) that defined Catholic doctrine in opposition to Protestant doctrines, reformed clerical training and discipline, and standardized liturgy and practices.
- Jesuits: Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540; key agents of the Counter-Reformation known for rigorous education, missionary work, and staunch loyalty to the pope.
- Aztec Empire: A central Mexican empire (roughly 1428–1521) centered on Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City), organized as a tributary military state, known for complex religion with human sacrifice; conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.
- Inca Empire: The largest pre-Columbian South American state (c. 1438–1533), based in the Andean highlands (capital at Cuzco), noted for sophisticated road systems, terrace agriculture, state administration, and stone masonry; fell to Francisco Pizarro.
- Renaissance: A cultural and intellectual revival originating in 14th-century Italy and spreading across Europe (14th–17th centuries), emphasizing a return to classical learning, artistic innovation, and new outlooks on human experience and the natural world.
- Rise of Florence: Florence became a leading center of the early Renaissance (14th–15th centuries) because of its wealth from banking and trade, powerful patron families (notably the Medici), and concentrations of artists, writers, and humanist scholars.
- Humanism: An intellectual movement of the Renaissance that emphasized study of classical Greek and Roman texts, the value and dignity of the individual, critical thinking, secular subjects (grammar, rhetoric, history, moral philosophy), and education for civic life.
- Gutenberg’s printing press: Johannes Gutenberg’s mid-15th-century invention of movable metal type printing (c. 1450s) in Europe, which dramatically lowered the cost of books and spread ideas, literacy, and printed Bible editions.
- Protestant Reformation: A 16th-century religious movement that challenged doctrines and abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, producing new Protestant denominations and major religious, political, and social change across Europe.
- Martin Luther: German Augustinian monk and theologian who launched the Protestant Reformation by posting his 95 Theses in 1517; he argued salvation by faith alone, rejected certain Catholic practices, and translated the Bible into German.
- John Calvin: French theologian and pastor (1509–1564) who systematized Protestant theology (Calvinism), emphasizing God’s sovereignty and predestination; he led a theocratic reform in Geneva that influenced Reformed churches across Europe.
- Catholic Reformation: The internal renewal movement within the Roman Catholic Church in response to Protestant criticism (late 15th–16th centuries), involving spiritual renewal, clerical reform, and doctrinal clarification.
- Henry VIII: King of England (1509–1547) who broke with the Roman Catholic Church when the pope refused to annul his marriage; through the Act of Supremacy (1534) he established the Church of England with the monarch as head.
- Counter-Reformation: The organized Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation (mid-16th–17th centuries), combining internal reform with efforts to oppose Protestant expansion and to reclaim adherents (overlaps with the Catholic Reformation but emphasizes reaction and defense).
- Council of Trent: An ecumenical council of the Catholic Church (1545–1563) that defined Catholic doctrine in opposition to Protestant doctrines, reformed clerical training and discipline, and standardized liturgy and practices.
- Jesuits: Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540; key agents of the Counter-Reformation known for rigorous education, missionary work, and staunch loyalty to the pope.
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