Question
The kingdom of Macedonia, located just north of Greece, had
rough terrain and a cold climate. The Macedonians were a
hardy people who lived in mountain villages rather than city-
states. Most Macedonian nobles thought of themselves as
Greeks. The Greeks, however, looked down on the Macedonians
as uncivilized foreigners who had no great philosophers, sculp-
tors, or writers. The Macedonians did have one very important
resource—their shrewd and fearless kings.
Philip’s Army In 359 BC, Philip II became king of Macedonia.
Though only 23 years old, he quickly proved to be a brilliant
general and a ruthless politician. Philip transformed the rug-
ged peasants under his command into a well-trained profes-
sional army. He organized his troops into phalanxes of 16
men across and 16 deep, each one armed with an 18-foot pike.
Philip used this heavy phalanx formation to break through
enemy lines. Then he used fast-moving cavalry to crush his
disorganized opponents. After he employed these tactics suc-
cessfully against northern opponents, Philip began to prepare
an invasion of Greece.
Conquest of Greece Demosthenes (dee•MAHS•thuh•neez),
the Athenian orator, tried to warn the Greeks of the threat
Philip and his army posed. He urged them to unite against
Philip. However, the Greek city-states could not agree on any
Module 5176
Reading Check
Analyze Causes
How did the
Peloponnesian War
pave the way for
Philip’s conquest
of Greece?
single policy. Finally, in 338 BC, Athens and Thebes—a city-state in cen-
tral Greece—joined forces to fight Philip. By then, however, it was too late.
The Macedonians soundly defeated the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea
(kair•uh•NEE•uh). This defeat ended Greek independence. The city-states
retained self-government in local affairs. However, Greece itself remained
firmly under the control of a succession of foreign powers—the first of
which was Philip’s Macedonia.
Although Philip planned to invade Persia next, he never got the chance.
At his daughter’s wedding in 336 BC, he was stabbed to death by a former
guardsman. Philip’s son Alexander immediately proclaimed himself king
of Macedonia. Because of his accomplishments over the next 13 years, he
became known as Alexander the Great.
Alexander Defeats Persia
Although Alexander was only 20 years old when he became king, he was
well prepared to lead. Under Aristotle’s teaching, Alexander had learned
science, geography, and literature. Alexander especially enjoyed Homer’s
description of the heroic deeds performed by Achilles during the Trojan
War. To inspire himself, he kept a copy of the Iliad under his pillow.
As a young boy, Alexander learned to ride a horse, use weapons, and
command troops. Once he became king, Alexander promptly demon-
strated that his military training had not been wasted. When the people of
Thebes rebelled, he destroyed the city. About 6,000 Thebans were killed.
The survivors were sold into slavery. Frightened by his cruelty, the other
Greek city-states quickly gave up any idea of rebellion.
Alexander
(356–323 BC)
When Alexander was only eight or nine years old, he tamed
a wild horse that none of his father’s grooms could manage.
Alexander calmed the horse, whose name was Bucephalus,
by speaking gently. Seeing the control that Alexander had
over the horse, Philip II said, ”You’ll have to find another
kingdom; Macedonia isn’t going to be big enough for you.“
Alexander took his father’s advice. Riding Bucephalus at the
head of a great army, he conquered the lands from Greece
to the Indus Valley. When the horse died in what is now
Pakistan, Alexander named the city of Bucephala after it.
Maybe he was tired of the name Alexandria. By that time,
he had already named at least a dozen cities after himself!
BIOGRAPHY
Classical Greece 177
Vocabulary
Hellespont ancient
name for the Darda-
nelles, the narrow
straits that separate
Europe from Asia
Minor
Invasion of Persia With Greece now secure, Alexander felt free to carry
out his father’s plan to invade and conquer Persia. In 334 BC, he led 35,000
soldiers across the Hellespont into Anatolia. Persian messengers raced
along the Royal Road to spread news of the invasion. An army of about
40,000 men rushed to defend Persia. The two forces met at the Granicus
River. Instead of waiting for the Persians to make the first move,
Alexander ordered his cavalry to attack. Leading his troops into battle,
Alexander smashed the Persian defenses.
Alexander’s victory at Granicus alarmed the Persian king, Darius III.
Vowing to crush the invaders, he raised a huge army of between 50,000
and 75,000 men to face the Macedonians near Issus. Realizing that he
was outnumbered, Alexander surprised his enemies. He ordered his finest
troops to break through a weak point in the Persian lines. The army then
charged straight at Darius. To avoid capture, the frightened king fled,
followed by his panicked army. This victory gave Alexander control
over Anatolia.
Conquering the Persian Empire Shaken by his defeat, Darius tried to
negotiate a peace settlement. He offered Alexander all of his lands west of
the Euphrates River. Alexander’s advisers urged him to accept. However,
the rapid collapse of Persian resistance fired Alexander’s ambition. He
rejected Darius’s offer and confidently announced his plan to conquer the
entire Persian Empire.
Bucephalus was Alexander’s favorite horse until its death in 326 BC. A statue of Bucephalus and
Alexander stands today in Macedonia.
Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory, in 332 BC. The
Egyptians welcomed him as a liberator. They crowned him pharaoh—
or god-king. During his time in Egypt, Alexander founded the city of
Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile River. After leaving Egypt, Alexander
moved east into Mesopotamia to confront Darius. The desperate Persian
king assembled a force of some 250,000 men. The two armies met at
Gaugamela (gaw•guh• MEE •luh), a small village near the ruins of ancient
Nineveh. Alexander launched a massive phalanx attack followed by a
cavalry charge. As the Persian lines crumbled, Darius again panicked and
fled. Alexander’s victory at Gaugamela ended Persia’s power.
Within a short time, Alexander’s army occupied Babylon, Susa, and
Persepolis. These cities yielded a huge treasure, which Alexander distrib-
uted among his army. A few months after it was occupied, Persepolis,
Persia’s royal capital, burned to the ground. Some people said Alexander
left the city in ashes to signal the total destruction of the Persian Empire.
The Greek historian Arrian, writing about 500 years after Alexander’s
time, suggested that the fire was set in revenge for the Persian burning of
Athens. However, the cause of the fire remains a mystery.
1. Who is King Phillip II?
2. How did his army take control of the city states near Macedonia and what city states were concurred?
3. What did the city states retain
4. Who is Alexander the Great and how does he come to power?
5. Why is Hellespont important to Alexander the Greats’ conquests?
rough terrain and a cold climate. The Macedonians were a
hardy people who lived in mountain villages rather than city-
states. Most Macedonian nobles thought of themselves as
Greeks. The Greeks, however, looked down on the Macedonians
as uncivilized foreigners who had no great philosophers, sculp-
tors, or writers. The Macedonians did have one very important
resource—their shrewd and fearless kings.
Philip’s Army In 359 BC, Philip II became king of Macedonia.
Though only 23 years old, he quickly proved to be a brilliant
general and a ruthless politician. Philip transformed the rug-
ged peasants under his command into a well-trained profes-
sional army. He organized his troops into phalanxes of 16
men across and 16 deep, each one armed with an 18-foot pike.
Philip used this heavy phalanx formation to break through
enemy lines. Then he used fast-moving cavalry to crush his
disorganized opponents. After he employed these tactics suc-
cessfully against northern opponents, Philip began to prepare
an invasion of Greece.
Conquest of Greece Demosthenes (dee•MAHS•thuh•neez),
the Athenian orator, tried to warn the Greeks of the threat
Philip and his army posed. He urged them to unite against
Philip. However, the Greek city-states could not agree on any
Module 5176
Reading Check
Analyze Causes
How did the
Peloponnesian War
pave the way for
Philip’s conquest
of Greece?
single policy. Finally, in 338 BC, Athens and Thebes—a city-state in cen-
tral Greece—joined forces to fight Philip. By then, however, it was too late.
The Macedonians soundly defeated the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea
(kair•uh•NEE•uh). This defeat ended Greek independence. The city-states
retained self-government in local affairs. However, Greece itself remained
firmly under the control of a succession of foreign powers—the first of
which was Philip’s Macedonia.
Although Philip planned to invade Persia next, he never got the chance.
At his daughter’s wedding in 336 BC, he was stabbed to death by a former
guardsman. Philip’s son Alexander immediately proclaimed himself king
of Macedonia. Because of his accomplishments over the next 13 years, he
became known as Alexander the Great.
Alexander Defeats Persia
Although Alexander was only 20 years old when he became king, he was
well prepared to lead. Under Aristotle’s teaching, Alexander had learned
science, geography, and literature. Alexander especially enjoyed Homer’s
description of the heroic deeds performed by Achilles during the Trojan
War. To inspire himself, he kept a copy of the Iliad under his pillow.
As a young boy, Alexander learned to ride a horse, use weapons, and
command troops. Once he became king, Alexander promptly demon-
strated that his military training had not been wasted. When the people of
Thebes rebelled, he destroyed the city. About 6,000 Thebans were killed.
The survivors were sold into slavery. Frightened by his cruelty, the other
Greek city-states quickly gave up any idea of rebellion.
Alexander
(356–323 BC)
When Alexander was only eight or nine years old, he tamed
a wild horse that none of his father’s grooms could manage.
Alexander calmed the horse, whose name was Bucephalus,
by speaking gently. Seeing the control that Alexander had
over the horse, Philip II said, ”You’ll have to find another
kingdom; Macedonia isn’t going to be big enough for you.“
Alexander took his father’s advice. Riding Bucephalus at the
head of a great army, he conquered the lands from Greece
to the Indus Valley. When the horse died in what is now
Pakistan, Alexander named the city of Bucephala after it.
Maybe he was tired of the name Alexandria. By that time,
he had already named at least a dozen cities after himself!
BIOGRAPHY
Classical Greece 177
Vocabulary
Hellespont ancient
name for the Darda-
nelles, the narrow
straits that separate
Europe from Asia
Minor
Invasion of Persia With Greece now secure, Alexander felt free to carry
out his father’s plan to invade and conquer Persia. In 334 BC, he led 35,000
soldiers across the Hellespont into Anatolia. Persian messengers raced
along the Royal Road to spread news of the invasion. An army of about
40,000 men rushed to defend Persia. The two forces met at the Granicus
River. Instead of waiting for the Persians to make the first move,
Alexander ordered his cavalry to attack. Leading his troops into battle,
Alexander smashed the Persian defenses.
Alexander’s victory at Granicus alarmed the Persian king, Darius III.
Vowing to crush the invaders, he raised a huge army of between 50,000
and 75,000 men to face the Macedonians near Issus. Realizing that he
was outnumbered, Alexander surprised his enemies. He ordered his finest
troops to break through a weak point in the Persian lines. The army then
charged straight at Darius. To avoid capture, the frightened king fled,
followed by his panicked army. This victory gave Alexander control
over Anatolia.
Conquering the Persian Empire Shaken by his defeat, Darius tried to
negotiate a peace settlement. He offered Alexander all of his lands west of
the Euphrates River. Alexander’s advisers urged him to accept. However,
the rapid collapse of Persian resistance fired Alexander’s ambition. He
rejected Darius’s offer and confidently announced his plan to conquer the
entire Persian Empire.
Bucephalus was Alexander’s favorite horse until its death in 326 BC. A statue of Bucephalus and
Alexander stands today in Macedonia.
Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory, in 332 BC. The
Egyptians welcomed him as a liberator. They crowned him pharaoh—
or god-king. During his time in Egypt, Alexander founded the city of
Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile River. After leaving Egypt, Alexander
moved east into Mesopotamia to confront Darius. The desperate Persian
king assembled a force of some 250,000 men. The two armies met at
Gaugamela (gaw•guh• MEE •luh), a small village near the ruins of ancient
Nineveh. Alexander launched a massive phalanx attack followed by a
cavalry charge. As the Persian lines crumbled, Darius again panicked and
fled. Alexander’s victory at Gaugamela ended Persia’s power.
Within a short time, Alexander’s army occupied Babylon, Susa, and
Persepolis. These cities yielded a huge treasure, which Alexander distrib-
uted among his army. A few months after it was occupied, Persepolis,
Persia’s royal capital, burned to the ground. Some people said Alexander
left the city in ashes to signal the total destruction of the Persian Empire.
The Greek historian Arrian, writing about 500 years after Alexander’s
time, suggested that the fire was set in revenge for the Persian burning of
Athens. However, the cause of the fire remains a mystery.
1. Who is King Phillip II?
2. How did his army take control of the city states near Macedonia and what city states were concurred?
3. What did the city states retain
4. Who is Alexander the Great and how does he come to power?
5. Why is Hellespont important to Alexander the Greats’ conquests?
Answers
GPT-4o mini
Here are the answers to your questions based on the provided text:
1. **Who is King Philip II?**
King Philip II was the king of Macedonia who ascended to the throne in 359 BC at the age of 23. He was a brilliant general and a ruthless politician who transformed the Macedonian army into a well-trained professional force. Philip II is notable for his conquests that resulted in the subjugation of the Greek city-states.
2. **How did his army take control of the city-states near Macedonia and what city-states were conquered?**
Philip II's army took control of the city-states near Macedonia through military strategy and superior tactics. He organized his troops into a phalanx formation, which allowed them to effectively break through enemy lines. In 338 BC, he specifically defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea. The city-states that were conquered included Athens and Thebes.
3. **What did the city-states retain?**
After their defeat, the Greek city-states retained a degree of self-government in local affairs. However, overall control of Greece fell under the rule of Philip's Macedonia, leading to the end of Greek independence.
4. **Who is Alexander the Great and how does he come to power?**
Alexander the Great was the son of King Philip II and became king of Macedonia at the age of 20 after his father was assassinated in 336 BC. He was well-prepared to rule, having been educated by Aristotle and trained in military leadership from a young age. He quickly demonstrated his capabilities by suppressing rebellions and leading military campaigns against Persia.
5. **Why is the Hellespont important to Alexander the Great’s conquests?**
The Hellespont, an ancient name for the Dardanelles strait, was crucial to Alexander’s conquests because it marked the boundary between Europe and Asia. In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the Hellespont with his army to invade Anatolia, initiating his campaign against the Persian Empire. This crossing was the beginning of his military campaigns that ultimately led to the conquest of Persia.
1. **Who is King Philip II?**
King Philip II was the king of Macedonia who ascended to the throne in 359 BC at the age of 23. He was a brilliant general and a ruthless politician who transformed the Macedonian army into a well-trained professional force. Philip II is notable for his conquests that resulted in the subjugation of the Greek city-states.
2. **How did his army take control of the city-states near Macedonia and what city-states were conquered?**
Philip II's army took control of the city-states near Macedonia through military strategy and superior tactics. He organized his troops into a phalanx formation, which allowed them to effectively break through enemy lines. In 338 BC, he specifically defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea. The city-states that were conquered included Athens and Thebes.
3. **What did the city-states retain?**
After their defeat, the Greek city-states retained a degree of self-government in local affairs. However, overall control of Greece fell under the rule of Philip's Macedonia, leading to the end of Greek independence.
4. **Who is Alexander the Great and how does he come to power?**
Alexander the Great was the son of King Philip II and became king of Macedonia at the age of 20 after his father was assassinated in 336 BC. He was well-prepared to rule, having been educated by Aristotle and trained in military leadership from a young age. He quickly demonstrated his capabilities by suppressing rebellions and leading military campaigns against Persia.
5. **Why is the Hellespont important to Alexander the Great’s conquests?**
The Hellespont, an ancient name for the Dardanelles strait, was crucial to Alexander’s conquests because it marked the boundary between Europe and Asia. In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the Hellespont with his army to invade Anatolia, initiating his campaign against the Persian Empire. This crossing was the beginning of his military campaigns that ultimately led to the conquest of Persia.