In the nineteenth century, China largely resisted Western influence, facing substantial internal strife and external pressure from imperial powers. The Opium Wars illustrated China’s vulnerability, leading to humiliating treaties that favored Western nations and eroded Chinese sovereignty. The Qing dynasty struggled to adapt, ultimately resulting in widespread social unrest, embodying a crisis of legitimacy that persisted through movements like the Taiping Rebellion, which sought to address both government weakness and social inequality.
In contrast, Japan responded to Western influence with a more proactive approach, culminating in the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Faced with threats from commodore Matthew Perry's expedition, Japan recognized the need for modernization to avoid the fate of China. The Meiji government rapidly industrialized, adopted Western technologies, and reformed its political system, fostering national unity. This calculated response enabled Japan to emerge as a regional power, demonstrating a contrasting trajectory in adapting to imperialism.