Question
02
Ancient European and Native American Astronomy
Ancient Europeans
One of the most recognizable ancient structures in the world is Stonehenge in Salisbury, England, southwest of London. Built around 3000 BCE, Stonehenge is the site of several henges, or ditches surrounded by banks. The stones that we often associate with the site did not arrive on the scene until approximately 2400 BCE. There are many theories about why this structure was built, but one of the leading concepts is that certain religious ceremonies based on natural phenomena and the movement of the heavens were held on the grounds. Just like the Sphinx in Egypt, Stonehenge seems to have accommodated a striking event during the summer solstice—only this time during the sunrise. During sunrise, the Sun could shine directly through the entire structure of Stonehenge. While not all scientists agree that Stonehenge was intentionally built to allow the Sun to pass through at this time, it does seem too coincidental to have been accidental.
Tall stone slabs stand upright in a rough circle while sunlight streaks through the openings between the slabs.
The great European mystery of Stonehenge is widely thought to be connected to the movements of the Sun.
Mayans
When we think of Native Americans, we often think of tribes on the great plains in North America, but our Central and Southern American counterparts also bear a robust history of native American cultures—and all had fascinating ideas about the sky, stars, planets, and how they interacted with daily life.
The Mayan civilization flourished in present-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras from about 2600 BCE, and Mayans still live and carry on their culture in Mexico and Central America; but the Classic Period, or “golden age” of the Mayan civilization, was about 300-900 CE.
A Mayan calendar is shown, with a stylized grinning face surrounded by a myriad of symbols forming a circle.
Mayan’s were able to predict solstices and eclipses with a high degree of accuracy using their calendars.
You’ve probably heard of an ancient Mayan prediction involving the calendar. It seems that every few years someone “discovers” a prophecy predicted by the Mayan calendar that suggests the world will end in the not-so-distant future. As we know, some of these predictions may in fact be based in pseudoscience rather than strict scientific inquiry, but what can we learn from the Mayans about astronomy?
In general Mayans aligned their architecture to track the solstices—which, as we know, helped communities plan some of their most pivotal subsistence activities like planting and harvesting. For this reason, it is no surprise that many of the cultures we’ve discussed constructed buildings that helped them follow the movements of the heavens. They also knew how to predict solar eclipses.
To accomplish this, they used two major calendars: the Calendar Round and the Long Count. The Calendar Round used two overlapping yearly patterns—one of 260 days that kept track of sacred events and one of 365 days (sound familiar?) that kept track of secular, everyday events. The calendar restarted every 52 years. The Long Count tracked time by counting using various intervals from about August 3114 BCE—which is when the Mayans believed the world was created. This calendar measures time in several interval cycles:
Just like the Calendar Round, the Long Count “restarts” or goes through cycles, except the Long Count cycle is much longer—about 5,139 years!
You will also see evidence of Mayans’ fascination with astronomy in the Temple of Kukulkan (also known as “El Castillo” in Spanish) inside the ancient Mayan city of Chichen Itza on Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. Unlike the other buildings we’ve studied so far, the Temple of Kukulkan illuminates at sunset during the spring and fall equinoxes, rather than during the solstices.
Aztecs
Another civilization that ruled in present-day Mexico at roughly the same time the Mayans did was the Aztec civilization. This civilization thrived from between 1100 and 1521 CE, but descendants of the Aztecs still live and practice certain cultural traditions in Mexico. Among other accomplishments, they are famous for developing a complex system of irrigation that allowed them to plant and harvest crops on land that previously was inhospitable to cultivated plant life.
A complex of stone pyramids are shown from an aerial view, with several smaller pyramids funneling towards two large temples.
The Aztecs built pyramids to show the significance of celestial bodies, like the Temples of the Sun and the Moon above, where ritual sacrifices and important religious ceremonies were held.
Like the Mayans, Aztecs tracked time by using two calendar systems that were inspired by the movement of celestial bodies. The first calendar system is known as tonalpohualli, or “counting of the days.” One calendar was 20 days long and named each day, while one calendar was 13 days long and assigned numbers to each day. After 260 days, all combinations of days and names would have been realized, at which point the calendar would start over.
The second calendar system, called xiuhpohualli or “counting of the years,” tracked sacred events and followed a similar pattern to our 365-day solar calendar. The combination of tonalpohualli and xiuhpohualli lasted 52 years (just like the Mayans!), at which point the cycle would begin again. They called each 52-year cycle a century, and at the point when the calendar restarted, Aztecs practiced an ancient ritual (not dissimilar to our modern-day Groundhog Day) called the New Fire Ceremony, a sacred event that was intended to confirm the continued movement of the heavens and subsequent pleasure of the gods who controlled their fates. This ceremony involved following the movement of the Pleiades, the easiest star cluster to view from Earth. They would watch for this star cluster until midnight—if by midnight the Pleiades had reached had reached the zenith (remember, this is the highest point in the sky), a new century would begin and all would be safe for another 52 years. If, however, the Pleiades did not reach the zenith by midnight, Aztecs feared that demons would be released from the heavens to devour humankind. The successful appearance of the Pleiades at the zenith would be marked by the sacrifice of a human offering—usually a prisoner—to thank and appease the gods.
The goal of this timeline is to create a chronological, visual, progression of astronomy over the years, which means that you will need more than just text.However, you will still need text!For each item or event that you add to your timeline, you must include the following:At least one imageThe date and a title for the item/eventA brief descriptionWhy you find this item or event notable in terms of the history of astronomyAny other pertinent information about this item/event
Answers
GPT-4o mini
### Timeline of Ancient Astronomy
---
**1. Stonehenge (circa 3000 BCE - 2400 BCE)**
**Date:** Circa 3000 BCE - 2400 BCE
**Title:** Stonehenge
**Description:** A prehistoric monument located in Salisbury, England, consisting of a ring of standing stones. The construction began around 3000 BCE and the stones were added later, around 2400 BCE.
**Significance:** Stonehenge is notable for its alignment with the solar events, particularly during the summer solstice. It raises questions about the understanding of celestial movements by ancient cultures and their emphasis on astronomical events in religious ceremonies.
**Additional Information:** While its exact purpose remains a mystery, many theories suggest it was a site for rituals connected to the seasons and the Sun.
---
**2. Mayan Civilization Calendars (circa 2600 BCE - 900 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 2600 BCE - 900 CE
**Title:** Mayan Calendars
**Description:** The Mayan civilization developed two primary calendar systems: the Calendar Round (260-day sacred calendar and 365-day secular calendar) and the Long Count calendar, which tracked longer periods of time.
**Significance:** The Mayans excelled in their understanding of astronomical cycles, enabling them to accurately predict solstices and eclipses, demonstrating their advanced knowledge of astronomy.
**Additional Information:** The Long Count calendar begins the cycle in 3114 BCE, thought by the Mayans to be the creation of the world.
---
**3. Temple of Kukulkan (circa 1000 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 1000 CE
**Title:** Temple of Kukulkan (El Castillo)
**Description:** A step pyramid at Chichen Itza that notably illuminates during the spring and fall equinoxes, showcasing advanced architectural astronomy among the Mayans.
**Significance:** The temple's design reflects the Mayans' sophisticated knowledge of solar phenomena, highlighting their understanding of the equinoxes and their significance in agricultural practices.
**Additional Information:** The shadow of the pyramid creates the illusion of a serpent descending the staircase during equinoxes.
---
**4. Aztec Calendar Systems (circa 1100 CE - 1521 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 1100 CE - 1521 CE
**Title:** Aztec Calendar Systems
**Description:** The Aztecs utilized two interlocking calendars: the tonalpohualli (260 days) and xiuhpohualli (365 days), marking significant ceremonial events and aiding agricultural management.
**Significance:** Their dual calendar system reflects a deep understanding of celestial cycles akin to those of the Mayans. The careful monitoring of celestial events and calendar cycles demonstrated the importance of astronomy in their culture and daily life.
**Additional Information:** The New Fire Ceremony, held at the end of each 52-year cycle, exemplified their astronomical beliefs and practices, illustrating the intertwining of religion and astronomy.
---
This timeline presents a visual and textual overview of significant astronomical advances of ancient European and Native American civilizations, highlighting their deep connection to the cosmos and the essential role that astronomy played in their cultures.
---
**1. Stonehenge (circa 3000 BCE - 2400 BCE)**
**Date:** Circa 3000 BCE - 2400 BCE
**Title:** Stonehenge
**Description:** A prehistoric monument located in Salisbury, England, consisting of a ring of standing stones. The construction began around 3000 BCE and the stones were added later, around 2400 BCE.
**Significance:** Stonehenge is notable for its alignment with the solar events, particularly during the summer solstice. It raises questions about the understanding of celestial movements by ancient cultures and their emphasis on astronomical events in religious ceremonies.
**Additional Information:** While its exact purpose remains a mystery, many theories suggest it was a site for rituals connected to the seasons and the Sun.
---
**2. Mayan Civilization Calendars (circa 2600 BCE - 900 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 2600 BCE - 900 CE
**Title:** Mayan Calendars
**Description:** The Mayan civilization developed two primary calendar systems: the Calendar Round (260-day sacred calendar and 365-day secular calendar) and the Long Count calendar, which tracked longer periods of time.
**Significance:** The Mayans excelled in their understanding of astronomical cycles, enabling them to accurately predict solstices and eclipses, demonstrating their advanced knowledge of astronomy.
**Additional Information:** The Long Count calendar begins the cycle in 3114 BCE, thought by the Mayans to be the creation of the world.
---
**3. Temple of Kukulkan (circa 1000 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 1000 CE
**Title:** Temple of Kukulkan (El Castillo)
**Description:** A step pyramid at Chichen Itza that notably illuminates during the spring and fall equinoxes, showcasing advanced architectural astronomy among the Mayans.
**Significance:** The temple's design reflects the Mayans' sophisticated knowledge of solar phenomena, highlighting their understanding of the equinoxes and their significance in agricultural practices.
**Additional Information:** The shadow of the pyramid creates the illusion of a serpent descending the staircase during equinoxes.
---
**4. Aztec Calendar Systems (circa 1100 CE - 1521 CE)**
**Date:** Circa 1100 CE - 1521 CE
**Title:** Aztec Calendar Systems
**Description:** The Aztecs utilized two interlocking calendars: the tonalpohualli (260 days) and xiuhpohualli (365 days), marking significant ceremonial events and aiding agricultural management.
**Significance:** Their dual calendar system reflects a deep understanding of celestial cycles akin to those of the Mayans. The careful monitoring of celestial events and calendar cycles demonstrated the importance of astronomy in their culture and daily life.
**Additional Information:** The New Fire Ceremony, held at the end of each 52-year cycle, exemplified their astronomical beliefs and practices, illustrating the intertwining of religion and astronomy.
---
This timeline presents a visual and textual overview of significant astronomical advances of ancient European and Native American civilizations, highlighting their deep connection to the cosmos and the essential role that astronomy played in their cultures.