1. Define, in your own words, the following terms: research; data; target population; sample;

Question

variable; characteristic; hypothesis, theory.
2. Enumerate 4 problems that one can face in research
3. Point out 4 of hallmarks of a good research
4. Why is it necessary to define a problem?
5. Enumerate 2 of features of a good research problem.
6. List 4 motives for one to conduct research
7. Enumerate the main steps of research process
8. Explain the types, approaches, strategies of research as well as the research designs
9. Point out 3 of the characteristics of a good research design
10. What is sampling? Name 3 reasons of sampling and 3 sampling related challenges that a
researcher may face.
11. Regarding sampling process, differentiate subject and element.
12. Describe 4 of probability sampling techniques
13. Describe 4 of non-probability sampling techniques
14. Describe the types and sources of data in a research work.
15. Briefly, explain the 5 methods used for collecting data in research and depict for each 2
advantages and 2 drawbacks.
16. In survey method, questionnaire method and interview methods are the most commonly used.
Compare these two methods in terms of their advantages and disadvantages (at least 4 points
each). Names the 2 types of questions used in these methods.
17. Describe 5 of data collection tools. What criteria would you look at while selecting a tool to
help you collect the research data.
18. Distinguish scales and levels of measurement. Explain and compare the levels of measurement
19. Define measurement, data analysis and data cleaning. What the steps of data cleaning? Explain
them
20. Differentiate descriptive data analysis and inferential data analysis
21. Why to write a research report? Point 4 reasons.
22. What characterize a good research report? Give 4 characteristics.
23. What should be considered when disseminating her research findings? Highlight 4
considerations.
24. Name two possible channels to disseminate research findings?
25. Briefly describe the elements a research report?
26. What is the overall value of asking students to write a research report?

Answer 1

Here are the answers to your questions:

1. Definitions:

   • Research: The systematic investigation of a subject to establish facts or principles, aiming to contribute new knowledge or insights.
   • Data: Information collected through observation, measurement, or experimentation for use in analysis and decision-making.
   • Target Population: The entire group of individuals or instances that share common characteristics from which a sample may be drawn for research purposes.
   • Sample: A subset of the target population selected for the purpose of conducting research, which aims to represent the larger group.
   • Variable: Any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted, which may change or vary from one entity to another.
   • Characteristic: A specific feature or quality of an individual, object, or group that can be observed or measured.
   • Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in a study.
   • Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural or social world, based on a body of evidence and repeatedly tested hypotheses.

2. Problems in Research:

   • Difficulty in accessing reliable data.
   • Lack of funds or resources.
   • Time constraints.
   • Ethical issues or constraints in conducting research.

3. Hallmarks of Good Research:

   • Relevance and significance of the topic.
   • Rigorous methodology.
   • Validity and reliability of the data collected.
   • Clear and concise reporting of findings.

4. Necessity to Define a Problem: Clearly defining a problem helps focus the research efforts, assists in identifying appropriate methods, and ensures that the research questions are relevant and actionable.

5. Features of a Good Research Problem:

   • Clarity and specificity.
   • Feasibility and relevance to the field of study.

6. Motives for Conducting Research:

   • To fill knowledge gaps in a particular field.
   • To inform policy or practice.
   • To test existing theories or develop new ones.
   • To find solutions to practical issues.

7. Main Steps of Research Process:

   • Identify and define the research problem.
   • Review literature.
   • Formulate a hypothesis or research questions.
   • Choose a research design/methodology.
   • Collect data.
   • Analyze data.
   • Report and disseminate findings.

8. Types, Approaches, and Strategies of Research:

   • Types: Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed methods.
   • Approaches: Descriptive, Exploratory, Explanatory.
   • Strategies: Experimental, Observational, Case Studies.
   • Research Designs: Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, Case-Control, Cohort studies.

9. Characteristics of a Good Research Design:

   • Clear objectives and hypotheses.
   • Appropriate methods for data collection.
   • Consideration of potential biases and confounding variables.
   • Ethical considerations.

10. Sampling: The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population for the purpose of representing that population.

• Reasons for Sampling:
  • Cost-effectiveness.
  • Time efficiency.
  • Feasibility in managing large amounts of data.
• Sampling Challenges:
  • Selection bias.
  • Non-response bias.
  • Difficulty in generalizing findings.

11. Subject vs. Element:

• A subject is an individual or entity being studied (e.g., a person or organization), while an element refers to the particular unit within the sample from which data is collected (e.g., a survey response).

12. Probability Sampling Techniques:

• Simple random sampling.
• Stratified sampling.
• Systematic sampling.
• Cluster sampling.

13. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques:

• Convenience sampling.
• Purposive sampling.
• Snowball sampling.
• Quota sampling.

14. Types and Sources of Data in Research:

• Types: Primary data (collected firsthand) and Secondary data (collected from existing sources).
• Sources: Surveys, experiments, interviews, observational studies, existing records.

15. Methods for Collecting Data:

• Surveys: Can reach a large audience; cost-effective vs. limited in depth and may have low response rates.
• Interviews: In-depth insights; flexibility in responses vs. time-consuming and may introduce interviewer bias.
• Observations: Real-time data collection; no reliance on self-report vs. observer bias and limited generalizability.
• Focus Groups: Rich qualitative data; group interaction can generate insights vs. dominance of vocal participants and logistical challenges.
• Experiments: Establish causal relationships; high control over variables vs. artificial settings and ethical constraints.

16. Comparison of Survey Method vs. Interview Methods:

• Advantages of Surveys:
  • Cost-effective for large samples.
  • Easier data analysis.
  • Standardized questions ensure uniformity.
  • Anonymity may increase honesty in responses.
• Disadvantages of Surveys:
  • Limited depth of data.
  • Low response rates.
  • Potential misunderstandings of questions.
  • Lack of flexibility in responses.
• Advantages of Interviews:
  • In-depth understanding of subjects.
  • Flexibility to explore topics in depth.
  • Personal interaction can build trust.
  • Rich qualitative data through nuanced responses.
• Disadvantages of Interviews:
  • Time-consuming and labor-intensive.
  • Higher costs due to scheduling and conducting.
  • Potential for interviewer bias.
  • Challenges in analyzing open-ended responses.
• Types of Questions:
  • Closed-ended questions.
  • Open-ended questions.

17. Data Collection Tools:

• Surveys, interviews, focus groups, observational checklists, experiment protocols.
• Criteria for Selecting Tools:
  • Relevance to research objectives.
  • Ease of use and data collection.
  • Reliability and validity of tool.
  • Amount of data to be collected and data analysis requirements.

18. Scales and Levels of Measurement:

• Scales: describe measurement tools or dimensions used for data collection.
• Levels of Measurement:
  • Nominal: distinct categories without order (e.g., gender).
  • Ordinal: categories with a ranked order (e.g., survey ratings).
  • Interval: ordered categories with equal distances but no true zero (e.g., temperature).
  • Ratio: interval level with a true zero point (e.g., weight).
• Comparison: Nominal and ordinal provide qualitative data, while interval and ratio provide quantitative.

19. Definitions:

• Measurement: The process of systematically assigning numbers or labels to variables to represent empirical properties.
• Data Analysis: The process of systematically applying statistical and logical techniques to describe, summarize, and compare data.
• Data Cleaning: The process of correcting or removing inaccurate, incomplete, or irrelevant data from a dataset.
• Steps of Data Cleaning:
  • Removing duplicates: Ensuring no same data points are counted more than once.
  • Handling missing values: Deciding how to treat incomplete data entries.
  • Correcting errors: Identifying and fixing inconsistencies or inaccuracies in data.
  • Standardizing formats: Ensuring uniform data entry formats (e.g., dates).

20. Descriptive vs. Inferential Data Analysis:

• Descriptive Analysis: Summarizes and describes the characteristics of data without making predictions or inferences (e.g., mean, median, mode).
• Inferential Analysis: Makes predictions or generalizations about a population based on a sample data, often utilizing statistical tests to draw conclusions (e.g., hypothesis testing).

21. Reasons for Writing a Research Report:

• To communicate findings clearly and effectively.
• To document research processes for transparency.
• To contribute to existing knowledge and practices.
• To provide a foundation for future research.

22. Characteristics of a Good Research Report:

• Clarity and precision in language.
• Logical structure and organization.
• Thorough documentation of processes and findings.
• Objectivity and neutrality of tone.

23. Considerations When Disseminating Findings:

• Understanding the target audience and their needs.
• Choosing appropriate channels for dissemination.
• Ensuring accessibility of the findings (e.g., language, format).
• Providing implications for practice or policy.

24. Channels for Disseminating Research Findings:

• Academic journals.
• Conferences and seminars.

25. Elements of a Research Report:

• Title page.
• Abstract.
• Introduction.
• Literature review.
• Methodology.
• Results.
• Discussion.

26. Value of Writing a Research Report: Writing a research report enhances students' critical thinking, improves their ability to communicate complex ideas clearly, reinforces the learning of research methodologies, and contributes to a habit of analytical writing and documentation.